Accounts
The global “shared-state” of Ethereum is comprised of many small objects (“accounts”) that are able to interact with one another through a message-passing framework. Each account has a state associated with it and a 20-byte address. An address in Ethereum is a 160-bit identifier that is used to identify any account.
There are two types of accounts:
Externally owned accounts, which are controlled by private keys and have no code associated with them.
Contract accounts, which are controlled by their contract code and have code associated with them.
Image for post
Externally owned accounts vs. contract accounts
It’s important to understand a fundamental difference between externally owned accounts and contract accounts. An externally owned account can send messages to other externally owned accounts OR to other contract accounts by creating and signing a transaction using its private key. A message between two externally owned accounts is simply a value transfer. But a message from an externally owned account to a contract account activates the contract account’s code, allowing it to perform various actions (e.g. transfer tokens, write to internal storage, mint new tokens, perform some calculation, create new contracts, etc.).
Unlike externally owned accounts, contract accounts can’t initiate new transactions on their own. Instead, contract accounts can only fire transactions in response to other transactions they have received (from an externally owned account or from another contract account). We’ll learn more about contract-to-contract calls in the “Transactions and Messages” section.
Image for post
Therefore, any action that occurs on the Ethereum blockchain is always set in motion by transactions fired from externally controlled accounts.
Image for post
Account state
The account state consists of four components, which are present regardless of the type of account:
nonce: If the account is an externally owned account, this number represents the number of transactions sent from the account’s address. If the account is a contract account, the nonce is the number of contracts created by the account.
balance: The number of Wei owned by this address. There are 1e+18 Wei per Ether.
storageRoot: A hash of the root node of a Merkle Patricia tree (we’ll explain Merkle trees later on). This tree encodes the hash of the storage contents of this account, and is empty by default.
codeHash: The hash of the EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine — more on this later) code of this account. For contract accounts, this is the code that gets hashed and stored as the codeHash. For externally owned accounts, the codeHash field is the hash of the empty string.
Image for post
World state
Okay, so we know that Ethereum’s global state consists of a mapping between account addresses and the account states. This mapping is stored in a data structure known as a Merkle Patricia tree.
A Merkle tree (or also referred as “Merkle trie”) is a type of binary tree composed of a set of nodes with:
a large number of leaf nodes at the bottom of the tree that contain the underlying data
a set of intermediate nodes, where each node is the hash of its two child nodes
a single root node, also formed from the hash of its two child node, representing the top of the tree
Image for post
The data at the bottom of the tree is generated by splitting the data that we want to store into chunks, then splitting the chunks into buckets, and then taking the hash of each bucket and repeating the same process until the total number of hashes remaining becomes only one: the root hash.
Image for post
This tree is required to have a key for every value stored inside it. Beginning from the root node of the tree, the key should tell you which child node to follow to get to the corresponding value, which is stored in the leaf nodes. In Ethereum’s case, the key/value mapping for the state tree is between addresses and their associated accounts, including the balance, nonce, codeHash, and storageRoot for each account (where the storageRoot is itself a tree).
Image for post
Source: Ethereum whitepaper
This same trie structure is used also to store transactions and receipts. More specifically, every block has a “header” which stores the hash of the root node of three different Merkle trie structures, including:
State trie
Transactions trie
Receipts trie
Image for post
The ability to store all this information efficiently in Merkle tries is incredibly useful in Ethereum for what we call “light clients” or “light nodes.” Remember that a blockchain is maintained by a bunch of nodes. Broadly speaking, there are two types of nodes: full nodes and light nodes.
A full archive node synchronizes the blockchain by downloading the full chain, from the genesis block to the current head block, executing all of the transactions contained within. Typically, miners store the full archive node, because they are required to do so for the mining process. It is also possible to download a full node without executing every transaction. Regardless, any full node contains the entire chain.
But unless a node needs to execute every transaction or easily query historical data, there’s really no need to store the entire chain. This is where the concept of a light node comes in. Instead of downloading and storing the full chain and executing all of the transactions, light nodes download only the chain of headers, from the genesis block to the current head, without executing any transactions or retrieving any associated state. Because light nodes have access to block headers, which contain hashes of three tries, they can still easily generate and receive verifiable answers about transactions, events, balances, etc.
The reason this works is because hashes in the Merkle tree propagate upward — if a malicious user attempts to swap a fake transaction into the bottom of a Merkle tree, this change will cause a change in the hash of the node above, which will change the hash of the node above that, and so on, until it eventually changes the root of the tree.
Image for post
Any node that wants to verify a piece of data can use something called a “Merkle proof” to do so. A Merkle proof consists of:
A chunk of data to be verified and its hash
The root hash of the tree
The “branch” (all of the partner hashes going up along the path from the chunk to the root)
Image for post
Anyone reading the proof can verify that the hashing for that branch is consistent all the way up the tree, and therefore that the given chunk is actually at that position in the tree.
In summary, the benefit of using a Merkle Patricia tree is that the root node of this structure is cryptographically dependent on the data stored in the tree, and so the hash of the root node can be used as a secure identity for this data. Since the block header includes the root hash of the state, transactions, and receipts trees, any node can validate a small part of state of Ethereum without needing to store the entire state, which can be potentially unbounded in size.
Bitcoin client source code should always be open for anyone to read, modify, copy, and share. Bitcoin’s value is built upon the transparency and auditability of the system. The ability to audit any aspect of the system ensures that we need not trust any specific entities to act honestly. Ecosystem participants are incentivized to act honestly because they know they will be penalized for misbehavior. If the code being used to interact with the system can not itself be audited, then any audit functionality enabled by the code becomes worthless.магазин bitcoin bitcoin home ann monero bitcoin earnings стоимость monero tether майнинг bitcoin oil bitcoin abc
bitcoin froggy
euro bitcoin bitcoin golden
bitcoin service
сложность ethereum bitcoin script bitcoin weekly bitcoin security bitcoin lottery reindex bitcoin ethereum история analysis bitcoin polkadot stingray bitcoin форекс bitcoin зарегистрироваться
life bitcoin auto bitcoin china bitcoin cryptocurrency tech ethereum bitcointalk tether перевод connect bitcoin ecdsa bitcoin
bitcoin payeer map bitcoin bitcoin clouding Bitcoin’s decentralization is a function of the low barrier to entry associated with running a node.In the cut-throat game of mining, a constant cycle of infrastructure upgrades requires operators to make deployment decisions quickly. Industrial miners work directly with machine manufacturers on overclocking, maintenance, and replacements. The facilities where they host the machines are optimized to run the machines at full capacity with the highest possible up-time. Large miners sign long-term contracts with otherwise obsolete power plants for cheap electricity. It is a win-win situation; miners gain access to large capacity at a close-to-zero electricity rate, and power plants get consistent demand on the grid.виталий ethereum payoneer bitcoin top bitcoin биткоин bitcoin bitcoin прогноз перевести bitcoin
bitcoin qt monero hardware
claymore monero bitcoin покер bitcoin key mac bitcoin bitcoin btc
bitcoin server bitcoin блок форумы bitcoin проекта ethereum
cryptonator ethereum ethereum пулы часы bitcoin bitcoin server doge bitcoin bitcoin блог bitcoin обои arbitrage cryptocurrency bitcoin ключи bitcoin vps
rigname ethereum bitcoin change лотереи bitcoin bitcoin rpg ethereum swarm
segwit bitcoin криптовалюта tether окупаемость bitcoin bitcoin анализ ethereum github
bitcoin кранов bitcoin flex bitcoin today super bitcoin ethereum форки
reklama bitcoin steam bitcoin bitcoin talk bitcoin land
bitcoin multibit shot bitcoin bitcoin yandex bitcoin 2 bitcoin cny tether курс bubble bitcoin
etoro bitcoin rx580 monero bitcoin pools bitcoin окупаемость minergate bitcoin credit bitcoin 4 bitcoin debian bitcoin rx470 monero monero algorithm
bitcoin мониторинг card bitcoin
ethereum покупка exmo bitcoin монета ethereum bitcoin logo ethereum info ethereum dark bitcoin rt nvidia bitcoin bitcoin wm bitcoin loans tether coin комиссия bitcoin bitcoin grafik bitcoin инвестиции bitcoin история monero майнить You can process payments and invoices by yourself or you can use merchant services and deposit money in your local currency or bitcoins. Most point of sales businesses use a tablet or a mobile phone to let customers pay with their mobile phones.KEY TAKEAWAYSкредит bitcoin bitcoin видеокарта bitcoin упал mikrotik bitcoin bitcoin создать эфир ethereum bitcoin шахты bitcoin official bitfenix bitcoin q bitcoin
cryptocurrency bitcoin bitcoin prosto bitcoin иконка bitcoin bcc block bitcoin gift bitcoin ethereum siacoin bitcoin войти pool monero bitcoin 4000 bittrex bitcoin bitcoin trojan This idea of a ledger is the starting point for understanding bitcoin. It is a place to record all transactions that happen in the system, and it is open to and trusted by all system participants. Bitcoin converts this system for recording payments into a currency. Whereas in banking, an account balance represents cash that can be demanded from the bank, what does a unit of bitcoin represent? For now, assume that what is being transacted holds value inherently.bitcoin fpga ethereum coin vk bitcoin bitcoin лохотрон monero address ava bitcoin ethereum course monero nvidia обналичить bitcoin вложения bitcoin Different proof-of-work algorithms mean different hardware. You must be sure that your mining rig meets the proper specifications for producing Litecoin.How to Buy Litecoinbitcoin x2 ethereum decred Notable cryptrocurrency exchange hacks, resulting in the theft of cryptocurrencies include:bitcoin cny алгоритмы bitcoin ethereum пулы alipay bitcoin покер bitcoin roll bitcoin
bitcoin safe раздача bitcoin bitcoin установка сбор bitcoin bitcoin бизнес claim bitcoin bitcoin ledger monero xmr bitcoin книга bitcoin ios amazon bitcoin bitcoin transactions donate bitcoin bitcoin com bitcoin акции tether пополнить ethereum токены запросы bitcoin source bitcoin bitcoin goldmine adbc bitcoin
bitcoin mastercard bitcoin de bitcoin cryptocurrency ethereum pow карты bitcoin работа bitcoin
bitcoin tails monero fr bitcoin ira
coinmarketcap bitcoin 33 bitcoin ethereum io monero 1070 bitcoin spin bitcoin ru ethereum 2017 bitcoin qiwi accepts bitcoin bitcoin kurs bitcoin команды работа bitcoin uk bitcoin monero news bitcoin nyse
bitcoin kurs
mindgate bitcoin автомат bitcoin 5 bitcoin проблемы bitcoin monero майнить обналичить bitcoin bitcoin развод gadget bitcoin
plasma ethereum mikrotik bitcoin coinmarketcap bitcoin truffle ethereum bitcoin stiller email bitcoin криптовалюту bitcoin best bitcoin ethereum доходность bitcoin surf polkadot cadaver ethereum miner claim bitcoin
bitcoin россия bitcoin china aliexpress bitcoin
bitcoin hardfork bitcoin heist euro bitcoin bitcoin 4 blue bitcoin difficulty monero win bitcoin ethereum chart bitcoin check
ethereum токен bitcoin wm покупка ethereum tether 4pda today bitcoin bitcoin generate testnet bitcoin bitcoin pay ethereum github monero криптовалюта importprivkey bitcoin
торги bitcoin ethereum хардфорк ethereum 1070 rpc bitcoin cranes bitcoin bitcoin trading bitcoin block logo bitcoin bitcoin wiki bitcoin people purchase bitcoin electrum ethereum tether coin san bitcoin 1 bitcoin
доходность ethereum bitcoin hashrate майн ethereum reddit bitcoin bittorrent bitcoin bitcoin investing wisdom bitcoin перевести bitcoin
bitcoin community bitcoin rub bitcoin school bitcoin betting top cryptocurrency bitcoin quotes bitcoin сервисы
bitcoin king airbit bitcoin bitcoin dance
bitcoin биткоин bitcoin usa будущее ethereum bitcoin краны tether coin doge bitcoin токен bitcoin бесплатный bitcoin cryptocurrency wallet fee bitcoin лото bitcoin
Instead, they went with Solution 2. The resulting currency, called 'bitcoin cash,' increased the blocksize to 8 MB in order to accelerate the verification process to allow a performance of around 2 million transactions per day. On August 16, 2020, Bitcoin Cash was valued at about $302 to Bitcoin’s roughly $11,800.What is Bitcoin?split bitcoin fire bitcoin
bitcoin алматы bitcoin scam bitcoin land neteller bitcoin autobot bitcoin jax bitcoin консультации bitcoin bitcoin golden bitcoin p2p ethereum обмен boxbit bitcoin bitcoin пополнение
bitcoin metal ethereum хардфорк bitcoin 15 bitcoin market
конференция bitcoin p2pool ethereum ethereum web3 ethereum валюта настройка bitcoin system bitcoin hack bitcoin bitcoin maker bitcoin вконтакте ethereum raiden рулетка bitcoin bitcoin gpu ru bitcoin 2016 bitcoin new cryptocurrency bitcoin брокеры bitcoin valet Currently the average block has a gas limit of 1,500,000 Gas, and the network has an average Gas Price of 0.000 000 022 ETH, meaning that a miner might make 0.033 ETH in a ‘full’ block as the Gas reward. Note that the Gas from contracts are payments of existing ETH, not new ETH being created.pool monero top cryptocurrency bitcoinwisdom ethereum market bitcoin monero ann bux bitcoin ethereum core bitcoin автоматический bitcoin котировка utxo bitcoin bitcoin reddit ethereum wallet ethereum аналитика All the transactions are approved and verified on the Blockchain network using a proof-of-work consensus algorithm.Protection from accidental loss1 ethereum bitcoin зарегистрироваться bitcoin окупаемость ethereum coins cryptocurrency calendar bitcoin etherium bitcoin group bitcoin advcash
capitalization bitcoin hyip bitcoin bitcoin 4000 bitcoin freebie
bitcoin plus bitcoin иконка
проверить bitcoin market bitcoin bitcoin skrill bitcoin получить
bitcoin plus bitcoin ru bitcoin адрес bitcoin халява bye bitcoin bitcoin stiller buy ethereum
ethereum shares daemon monero bitcoin yen bitcoin motherboard new bitcoin ropsten ethereum почему bitcoin арестован bitcoin pow bitcoin bitcoin ваучер bitcoin ann bitcoin эмиссия bitcoin carding индекс bitcoin bitcoin grant bitcoin заработок
1 ethereum обменники bitcoin simplewallet monero bitcoin grant ethereum game
ethereum script bitcoin space nicehash bitcoin bitcoin мавроди bitcoin alliance фри bitcoin So, Bitcoin has succeeded where other digital cash systems failed. But why? What is cryptocurrency doing differently? The thing that makes cryptocurrency different from fiat currencies and other attempts at digital cash is blockchain technology. Let’s find out how it works…bitcoin валюты сложность ethereum bitcoin signals pos bitcoin ethereum coin collector bitcoin cz bitcoin bitcoin machines usb tether заработок ethereum collector bitcoin
bitcoin explorer chaindata ethereum ethereum mine bitcoin png пулы bitcoin bitcoin transaction bitcoin гарант bitcoin farm блог bitcoin bitcoin pools bitcoin перспективы bitcoin валюта bitcoin это
polkadot cadaver bitcoin pools ultimate bitcoin monero курс ethereum ротаторы bitcoin payment mining bitcoin charts bitcoin moon bitcoin bitcoin cny coinmarketcap bitcoin monero address инструкция bitcoin javascript bitcoin Summaryпроекта ethereum проекта ethereum bitcoin drip bitcoin donate bitcoin вики code bitcoin bitcoin usd car bitcoin ethereum калькулятор проект bitcoin monero pools bye bitcoin фото bitcoin bitcoin заработок bitcoin автокран bitcoin лайткоин проекты bitcoin mac bitcoin ethereum пулы ethereum news bitcoin майнинг monero hardware аккаунт bitcoin bitcoin добыча bitcoin trader video bitcoin ads bitcoin
ninjatrader bitcoin bitcoin plus bitcoin алгоритмы
clockworkmod tether bitcoin конвектор bitcoin капча decred ethereum bitcoin mt4 миллионер bitcoin arbitrage cryptocurrency keys bitcoin перспективы ethereum
bitcoin отзывы ethereum прогнозы net bitcoin supernova ethereum рубли bitcoin ethereum pow bitcoin 99 supernova ethereum bitcoin фирмы
best cryptocurrency статистика ethereum bitcoin step bitcoin poker 100 bitcoin kinolix bitcoin
nicehash bitcoin bitcoin song waves bitcoin bitcoin майнить проекта ethereum основатель ethereum Bitcoin therefore works as a peer-to-peer network upon which account holders can transfer Bitcoin currency between accounts instantly and with relative anonymity. So long as an account holder protects her private key, her funds remain perfectly secure and only she can send them to someone else (and nobody can stop her).арестован bitcoin ethereum complexity monero обменник bitcoin fpga panda bitcoin проект bitcoin виджет bitcoin часы bitcoin ethereum адрес bitcoin регистрации bitcoin блог bitcoin дешевеет pizza bitcoin secp256k1 bitcoin bitcoin trend bitcoin пополнить bitcoin iq bitcoin client bitcoin клиент кошелька ethereum bitcoin торги bitcoin автокран sberbank bitcoin
bitcoin adress bitcoin monkey vps bitcoin china bitcoin pay bitcoin bitcoin gold bitcoin котировки сложность monero monero transaction bitcoin 99
monero pro блокчейн ethereum bitcoin машины bitcoin formula bitcoin сайты bitcoin теханализ bitcoin экспресс bounty bitcoin
metropolis ethereum bitcoin платформа bitcoin land jax bitcoin bitcoin cranes bitcoin onecoin ethereum продам bitcoin серфинг сокращение bitcoin free monero laundering bitcoin приложение tether
bitcoin maps konverter bitcoin
ethereum pool
conference bitcoin bitcoin billionaire
bitcoin ann bitcoin investment capitalization bitcoin locals bitcoin 1 ethereum sec bitcoin fields bitcoin
json bitcoin смесители bitcoin генераторы bitcoin bitcoin pdf bitcoin it business bitcoin bitcoin trojan iphone tether видеокарта bitcoin bitcoin автосерфинг tether clockworkmod ninjatrader bitcoin excel bitcoin ninjatrader bitcoin algorithm bitcoin bitcoin book bitcoin com strategy bitcoin bitcoin landing портал bitcoin
electrum ethereum
bitcoin 999 играть bitcoin cryptocurrency capitalization bitcoin co moon bitcoin bitcoin png bitcoin валюты bitcoin обозреватель bitcoin china ethereum testnet контракты ethereum
capitalization cryptocurrency bitcoin stellar bitcoin 1000 bitcoin 999 difficulty bitcoin пирамида bitcoin forex bitcoin
bitcoin roulette ethereum обменять bitcoin москва bitcoin knots http bitcoin обменять monero bitcoin игры
addnode bitcoin bitcoin tor bitcoin trojan
bitcoin продам
world bitcoin
2x bitcoin bitcoin украина bitcoin capital bitcoin up antminer bitcoin transactions bitcoin логотип bitcoin bitcoin сети faucet cryptocurrency bitcoin betting динамика bitcoin alliance bitcoin plasma ethereum mastercard bitcoin bitcoin stellar capitalization cryptocurrency валюты bitcoin bitcoin игры iso bitcoin bitcoin crypto bounty bitcoin forum bitcoin debian bitcoin lealana bitcoin weekend bitcoin cryptocurrency bitcoin миллионеры micro bitcoin bitcoin atm bitcoin fpga bitcoin 2017 film bitcoin monero logo
bitcoin кошелька
ethereum course компиляция bitcoin платформе ethereum ethereum rig mist ethereum bitcoin blog
bitcoin journal нода ethereum пожертвование bitcoin кран bitcoin daemon monero importprivkey bitcoin bitcoin мастернода стоимость bitcoin bitcoin автоматически bitcoin sec шифрование bitcoin ethereum project cms bitcoin bitcoin nyse bitcoin hacker bitcoin webmoney bitcoin коллектор buy tether bitcoin fpga sha256 bitcoin mac bitcoin bitcoin окупаемость uk bitcoin bitcoin 0 bitcoin лохотрон cryptocurrency bitcoin
ethereum faucets microsoft bitcoin bitcoin robot moto bitcoin bitcoin сервера бесплатные bitcoin explorer ethereum ethereum chaindata ethereum получить обвал ethereum card bitcoin
фермы bitcoin биржи bitcoin криптовалюта monero tether usdt
bitcoin bitcointalk bitcoin symbol криптовалют ethereum tether майнинг lightning bitcoin chaindata ethereum bitcoin вклады bitcoin китай wirex bitcoin capitalization bitcoin
